Workable Writing Process

A Functional
Writing Process for this (or any) Class

Helpful Hints to Think of Before You Begin

• Set Reasonable Goals: to hold the reader's interest, tell
  a compelling story, to include sensory details in a draft, to maintain a focus
  on what took place, to complete a draft by dinner;
• Do the Easy Parts First;
• Make writing a Habit (as long as it is occasional it will
  be awkward and hard);
• Find a regular Time and Place;
• Do some Warm-Up Writing before Tackling Your Essay--freewriting;
• Write Fast;
• Reward Yourself with Some Short Breaks;
• If you get stuck, be willing to return to invention strategies
  to generate more ideas.

Prewriting

1. Decide upon a subject (such as a story about your childhood).
2. Decide upon a topic using some of the prewriting strategies.

When you have a topic:

3. Decide on your purpose (rhetorical goal/controlling idea)
   for writing on that topic.
4. Gather material, using a prewriting/invention strategy.
5. Select and decide upon best material, which you then organize
   in the most effective manner possible. This is where audience awareness comes
   into play.
6. Review your pre-writing materials. After giving them a good
   look, put them aside, out of sight. This is a bridge between pre-writing and
   writing.

Drafting

• Start with a working title. Chances are that if you can't
  come up with some sort of a title you don't know what you want to write about.
  Move on if you are having trouble coming up with a title.
• You needn't concern yourself with writing the introduction
  first; go right to the heart of the matter and if you need to, right an introduction
  later. When you have a better idea what you are saying, it will be easier
  to introduce the material.
• Once you begin writing, concentrate on the logical smooth
  flow of ideas and details--move as quickly as possible, with a minimum of
  judgment, while composing the draft. Imagine speaking your draft to someone
  as you compose. You are now forging new and meaningful relations among your
  ideas and information.
• Your goal with the first draft is to get as much information
  on paper as possible.
• Ignore spelling, sentence structure, grades, messiness and
  other outside concerns.
• After you have put all of this to paper, you have completed
  a draft of your essay.

Revision Process

• It is often best to get some distance between yourself and
  a draft. This entails setting it aside for a day or two. Of course, if you
  are not working ahead you can't do this.
• Assume new identity: that of reader/editor
• The process then includes reading your paper to other writers.
  These writers will offer feedback on the strong and weak points they see in
  your paper. You then take this information and use it to improve your essay.
  You will also, if you pay attention, come across strong and weak points in
  the essays that are read to you, and you will be able to use those ideas to
  improve your essay. Have a goal for your revision: clearer, better detail--

• Make use of the written comments received during peer review.
• Evaluate your essay before and after going over peer responses.

When on Your Own, Use the Following Revision Process.

1. First revise for ideas: clarify the main idea. Read through
   your draft. Mark any areas which seem unclear, but don't think about fixing
   them until you've read the whole essay. When finished reading, put the essay
   aside and see if you can write a sentence containing the main idea. Compare
   to the existing thesis/controlling idea. Once you have said it as clear as
   you can, evaluate it for honesty and freshness.
2. Read the draft again. Evaluate the details. Are they concrete
   and specific? Do they create sensory images? Do they convey the necessary
   message to your audience.
3. Read the draft again and check the order of your presentation.
   Is it as effective as possible? This is a good place to use outlining.
4. Revise for word choice. Be sure each word is doing its job
   and carrying its weight. In general, use Anglo-Saxon root words which are
   usually one or two syllables. If you can replace a three-plus syllable word
   with a one or two syllable equivalent, you should do so.
5. Next revise for mechanics. Use a handbook to check any punctuation
   you are unsure of, or where you commonly make mistakes. This is editing.
6. Do all of the above as many times as needed.

• The more you rewrite now, the better you get at it and the
  less you will have to do it in the future.
• If introduction seems dull, begin with the second paragraph.

Essay Format

General Information Concerning Essay Format

General Format

Titles

Every essay must have a title. The rules for titles are that they use the same font and same font size as the rest of the essay. Capitalize the first, last, and important words in-between. This means you typically capitalize nouns and verbs. You do not capitalize (except if they are the first or last word in the title) articles (the, an, a), prepositions (of, below, near, above, etc.) or conjunctions (and, but, or, etc.). Typically you want the title to contain the main point in the essay, but that point needs to be reduced to three or four words. The title should be centered, but when submitting via email this is often hard to do.

When submitting an essay, the header should look like this:

Your Name

Course

Instructor's Name

Due Date

A Title that Predicts Essay Development

First, every essay will have an introduction, Body, and Conclusion. It is often said that the introduction tells the reader what the essay will tell the reader, the body of the essay tells the reader what the essay is about, and the conclusion tells the reader what the essay just told them.

For the narrative, it might be easier to think of the introduction as the beginning, the body as the middle, and the conclusion as the end.

With the introduction, I am the only reader, as are members of your peer groups, who is required to read your writing. Your job in the first paragraph is to persuade the reader to continue on.

Introduction Basics

• The Introduction is the first paragraph.
• Begin with a statement which interests and orients the reader, often referred to as the HOOK.
• Should introduce topic right away.
• Should contain thesis statement/controlling idea.

Generalizations about Introductions and Conclusions

• Need not be parts of the essay indicated by such phrases as "before we begin" or "in conclusion."
• Introductions and conclusions are more effective if they are thought of in matched pairs.
• Introductions and conclusions which work in one context can fail in others.

Consider the audience when thinking about the type of introduction/conclusion you are going to use.

• Introduction should give readers a preview of essay's subject and/or framework. An introduction is not an introduction if it leaves readers clueless about either the subject or the framework.
• Beginning of the essay introduces the interpreter [author] as well as the interpretation. Present yourself as a person whose judgments and opinions are likely to be valuable.
• Summarizing in a broad sense is one of the conclusion's main functions. Do not simply restate what you have already said. Rather, place your topic within a larger context.

Introduction and Conclusion Strategies

• Funnel shaped (inverted pyramid) introduction matched with "web" conclusion. this introduction begins with broad statement related to the topic. Provide background information, each bit more specific than the first--all of which lead to and set up the thesis statement. The Conclusion presents or restates original topic in the context of larger concerns. This is the standard format taught in many writing courses.
• Build on a scene--show your reader where the narrative will be taking place. Make it interesting. Match with the conclusion built on a parallel scene. This is a particularly good strategy for the narrative essay.
• Stress the author's attitude in the Introduction, matching that with a conclusion that reflects a change in that attitude--can also deal with emotion, feelings, or ideas.
• Develop a question in the Introduction matched with a Conclusion that discusses an answer.

Body

• Develops issues and ideas broached in Introduction.
• For narrative decide what the climax or high point of the story is and build towards it.

Invention Strategies

How do You Get to a Good Idea?

• Strive for the unusual and fresh--the first idea off the top of your head is likely to be trite and dull. Possible example of trite and dull: car crashes and learning how serious driving is.
Possible example of fresh: How your driving behavior and attitude towards others changed when you bought an new, late model car.
• Use your senses.
• Look at topic from alternative (as in someone other than yourself) points of view.
• Break stereotypes, unquestioned ideas and slogans. In short, think beyond the obvious.
• Classify your topic--narrowing in the process.
• Make bug lists (what really bugs me about this is . . . )

Prewriting/Invention Strategies

Incubation

Brainstorming

Clustering

1. In a word or a phrase, write the topic in the middle of the page and circle it.
2. Also in a word or a phrase, write down the main parts or central ideas of the topic. Circle these and connect them to the topic in the center.
3. Generate facts, details, examples, or ideas related in any way to these main parts. Cluster these around the main points.

Listing: works good alone and in groups

1. Give the list a title that indicates your main idea or topic.
2. Write as fast as you can, relying on short phrases.
3. Include anything that seems at all useful. Withhold judgment at this point.
4. Reflect on the list and organize it to suit your needs.
5. Put an asterisk by the most promising items.
6. Number key items in order of importance.
7. Put items in related groups.
8. Cross out items that do not seem promising.
9. Add new items.

Outlining: ordering your lists or clustering topics is a way of outlining

• Scratch outline: rough list of main points and some sub-points as well:
• Topic Outlines (written in phrases for each topic):
• Sentence Outlines (written as complete sentences) follow lettered and numbered format. Sentence outlines are more detailed:

Freewriting/forcedwriting

Writing informally in a journal

The Pentad: Every human action is influenced by these five elements

• Act (what): Anything that happens or could happen or is the result of a completed activity.:
• Scene (where, when): The setting or background of the action;
• Agent (who): The person or force responsible for or influenced by the action;
• Agency (how): The method that makes a thing happen;
• Purpose (why): The reasons or motives for the action.

The Pentad Taken Further

Answering these questions will give you considerable detail for a narrative essay. Develop the answers as fully as possible and you will go a long way toward completing your narrative essay.

• What is the person doing?
• How did he/she get involved?
• What is the person trying to accomplish?
• How will the person accomplish these goals?
• What obstacles does the person face?
• What action is the person trying to take?
• What other actions are possible?
• How does the setting, the time of the and others involved in it affect the person's actions?

Cubing

• Describe the subject. What is its content?
• Compare it. What is it similar to, different from?
• Associate it. What does it remind you of?
• Analyze it. Explain how it was made/came to be.
• Apply it. Explain how it can be used.
• Argue for or against it. Take a stand.

Aristotelian Argument Format

Aristotelian Argument Format

• Introduction

  (includes one or more of the following)

  1. Exordium: The beginning or opening words, designed to win attention and good will by introducing the case in an interesting and favorable light.
  2. Exposition or Narration: An account of the history of the case (what gave rise to the present problem; how the issues developed)
  3. Direct statement of the case (the proposition to be proved or defended--thesis).
  4. Division of Proofs: An outline of how the writer will present the evidence

  Body

  (includes the following)
  

• Confirmation of case by presenting evidence in its favor (includes one or more of the following):
  1. facts
  2. reasons
  3. statistics
  4. testimony of experts
  5. opinions supported by facts
  6. reports
  7. examples
  8. logical reasoning (inductive or deductive)
  9. analogy
• Acknowledge merit of opposing view
• Refutation of opposing views by demonstrating that they are:
  1. untrue
  2. illogical
  3. self-contradictory
  4. ambiguous (terms not clearly defined)
  5. dishonest ( a deliberate attempt to deceive)
  6. absurd

  Conclusion

  (includes one or more of the following)

  1. Recapitulation and summary of argument: to repeat is to reinforce and make certain readers have not misunderstood.
  2. Peroration: A final, heightened appeal for support.
  3. Propose a solution.

Argument Advice and Guidelines

Argument Advice and Guidelines

Argument is concerned with questions of judgment, not taste

• Judgment is joined to the logical and reasonable
• It's best to reveal points often overlooked
• It's a good idea to define your terms so your audience
  knows exactly what you are talking about. [consult a
  dictionary if you need]

Having a Debatable Point

• You need an argumentative edge.
• The main point/assertion--Thesis statement--must be open
  to dispute and able to be viewed from more than one side.
• Statements of fact are not debatable, neither are
  statements about personal tastes and preferences.
• A point is Debatable if no amount of reasoning by an
  expert or support by statistics can prove the truth or
  fallacy of the statement.

Supporting the Claim

• Offer the reader convincing reasons why your position is
  X because of Y.
• Choose reasons carefully to move your audience
• If you use outside sources (as this assignment requires),
  choose reliable and authoritative ones.
• Use hard evidence [facts] and not soft evidence
  [opinion].
• Conclusions based on soft evidence will often not stand
  up to scrutiny.

To Argue a Point Persuasively You Must do the Following

• Offer convincing reasons
• Arguments only as good as the reasons used to support it.
• You have to make your readers agree with you, or at least
  see the point you are making
• Use only the best evidence.

Appeal to Reason

Induction

• Often you will use induction to reach a generalization
  [informed opinion] and then that generalization can be
  used deductively to reach a conclusion.
• The major premise must be acceptable, minor premise must
  be verifiable, and the argument is not overstated.
• Induction is from Latin inducere for "to lead,"
  to draw along: reasoning from specific evidence to a
  general conclusion to move from the specific instances to
  the generalizations necessary to make a point and to
  establish the cause or causes of something.
• The act, process, or result or an instance of reasoning
  from a part to a whole, from particulars to generals or
  from the individual to the universal. Specific instances
  which lead to a generalization.
• Don't make generalizations too sweeping.

Deduction

• Applying a proven generalization to a specific case,
  using generalizations to arrive at a specific conclusion.
  .
• The conclusion is arrived at inductively, so induction is
  used often times to set up deductive arguments.
• The generalization must be accepted and the specific
  instance must be a fact for the conclusion to be
  accurate.
• Illogical deductive arguments usually result from a
  faulty major premise or inaccurate generalization.

Syllogism

• Syllogism comes from the Greek "syllogismos"
  for 'to calculate with words'.
• A deductive scheme of formal argument consisting of a
  major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion.
• Moves from general to specific. major premise

Toulmin Model

• Combination of inductive and deductive reasoning schemes.
• Concerned more with probability than certainty. See the
  following examples.
  

  Claim

• Equivalent to the conclusion or what the writer wants to
  prove;
  

  Data

• The information or evidence a writer offers in support of
  the claim;
  

  Warrant

• A general statement that establishes a trustworthy
  relationship between the data and the claim. Leads to
  conclusion that is probably true.
• Claim and data must be specific/explicit
  

  Assumptions
  underlie this warrant

• (such as that the data is valid)
• Be prepared to back up warrant.

The warrant is false because a French tourist who has a child
while vacatioining in Puerto Rico may chose between American and
French citizenship for their child.

Here the warrant is accurate given the above information and
the reasoning is logical given the information. The warrant
establishes a trustworthy relationship between the Data and the
Claim.

Distinguish Hard from Soft Evidence

• Hard evidence equal facts; soft evidence consists of
  opinion.
• Base conclusions on hard evidence.
• Avoid showy, deceptive conclusions These seem correct at
  first, but rarely are. Often based on soft evidence or
  ignores important variables--which is why scientific
  studies are done in several populations and placebos are
  given.

Avoid Faulty Generalizations

• Something true in one case need not be true in all cases:
  Blondes have more fun, television is worthless, money
  buys happiness.
• Often these are stereotypes.
• Often are based on insufficient or irrelevant evidence or
  they are too broad and sweeping
• Often these faulty generalizations are based on
  stereotypes.

Avoid Begging the Question

• Happens when you assume that a debate's premise
  underlying your assertion has already been demonstrated
  to be true, so you beg your reader to take your word for
  it, trust me you say.
• You assume what you are arguing to be the case can be
  used as evidence to make that case.
• Occurs when you assume that a debatable premise
  underlying the point you want to make has already been
  proven.
• These arguments assume that what the arguer is supposed
  to be proving is already accepted as having been proven.

Avoid Avoiding the Question

• Often done with an emotional appeal to distract reader
  from the real issue.
• An appeal to pity, fear, normalcy, flattery, patriotism,
  or snob appeal.
• Avoids the real issue with material that is irrelevant or
  which clouds the issue by making an irrational appeal to
  the emotions.

Avoid Bandwagon Approach

• Everyone is doing it, why can't I? Gets readers to agree
  by claiming that everyone else agrees.
• Following the crowd avoids the real issue.

Avoid Attacking the Opponent

• Name calling or other derogatory statements about their
  character ignores the real question and exposes a weak
  position.

Avoid Faulty Causal Argument

• Causes can have more than one effect, so make sure the
  link is solid and demonstrable.
• Often the result of oversimplification, suggesting
  relationships that don't exist, the ignoring of evidence
  which may run counter to the argument being made, and
  denying the real reasons.

Avoid Imposing Either/Or Fallacy

• Leaves out all but the extremes of thespectrum.
• Occurs when the issue is reduced to the two extremes.
• Eliminates all middle ground because you are either for
  or against.

Proper Appeals to Emotion

• Such emotional appeals require showing empathy and
  identifying with your reader's feelings.
• Identify with your opposition's feelings and point of
  view.

Acknowledge Opposing Views

• Show respect for the opposition and what is valid about
  their argument.
• Acknowledge the merit of other opinions.

Maintain a Moderate Tone

• When you act like you are the only authority, then many
  people will be turned off by what you have to say no
  matter how valid and important your material.
• Don't be belligerent, telling anyone who doesn't side
  with you that they are fools and being duped by the
  opposition.

Recognizing Flaws in Persuasion and Argument

Bogus Claims

• Claims are bogus or false when the persuader promises
  more than he or she can prove beyond dispute.

Loaded Terms

• Terms are loaded when they are asked to carry more
  emotional weight than the context can legitimately
  support: Bush regime, Marxist President Salvador Allende,
  Unnecessary adjectives wealthy candidate used to turn the
  unwealthy away from the candidate.

Misrepresentation

• Lies, twisting what others have said through
  oversimplification
• Complex argument reduced to ridicule--ask for evidence to
  support claims.
• Use quotes within their context.

The above Three Terms Represent the Qualities of Propaganda.

Evaluating Sources

Evaluating Source Materials

What Are Outisde Sources?

Outside sources are materials that come from somewhere other than your memory or direct experience. These outside sources often makeup what is considered hard evidence in an argumentative, or other, research essay. These sources include, but are not limited to, books, magazines, academic or professional journals, radio and television shows, films, and the testimony of experts.

How is Reliability and Authority Evaluated in a Source?

Like many things, authority and reliability depends on the source. Because, as a writer, you want to maintain a moderate tone and not drive your readers away, you have to choose your sources wisely. If you were to write an essay about animal testing, there are three (at least) sources of printed information available.

One of the sources is the Humane Society of the United States. The HSUS is a fairly mainstream, conservative organiazation. They tend to work behind the scenes in a low key way. HSUS runs animal shelters, spay and neuter programs, and looks into the treatment of both livestock and pets. The HSUS also engages in traditional political actions such as lobbying Congress.

Another organization and source of information on animals is People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. PETA is a bit more high profile than HSUS and many prominent people are members. If you have seen the "Don't Wear Fur" campaign where a group of models and moviestars stand behind a banner bearing that proclamation, you have seen some of the information PETA puts out. They are more activist and outspoken than the HSUS, but tend to have pretty much the same goals and act within the law.

Also among those advocating animal rights is the Animal Liberation Front. ALF is among the more radical of animal rights organizations, and if you believe the newspaper reports, they are also more likely to act outside of the law. If you have read stories in the paper about break-ins at research labs where animals are set free, someone holding philosophies similar to ALF's may well have been involved.

These characterizations are meant to show that while people and organizations can have similar goals, they can also have different approaches to achieving those goals. These approaches are products of the biases we all have. As a writer you need to be aware of the biases your sources have. If you are not aware of the biases, your argument may end up being undermined by them. If you are writing an argument to support a ban on animal testing and you know your audience wants to continue testing, which source of information might be the most likely to sway their opinion? The radical or the mainstream? The moderate or the in-your-face? If you can get the same information from a more conservative source, it may have a greater effect on your audience.

More on Reliability and Authority

There are three general categories of journals and magazines and you should understand how they are different.

The first category is written by a generalist for the general public. General consumption news and entertainment magazines fit into this category. Often the writer is someone with no specific training or experience in the topic they are writing about. In a sense they become "instant experts" on their topic as they compose the essay or article. Publications such as Time, Newsweek, Rolling Stone, Ebony, and Esquire fit into this category. These publications will typically contain a good deal of advertising. These publications rely on advertising dollars to sustain themselves and they are in business to turn a profit as well as provide the public with information.

The second category is written by an expert for the general public. This expert may not have specific training in their topic but they may have devoted their career to writing about certain issues, or they may be a professional intheir field but prefer to write to a general audience rather than to or for their peers. Publications such as the Smithsonian, Psychology Today and National Geographic can be considered to fit into this category. These publications usually rely more on subscription dollars than advertising dollars to continue their existance, but there will be some advertising, usually concentrated in the front of the publication.

The third category is written by an expert for other experts. These are typically professional and academic journals. Titles include College English, Teaching English In a Two Year College, Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Lancet (the British version of JAMA), and many more too numerous to list. A quick trip through the library will provide you a quick glimpse of what is available. These publications are nearly devoid of advertising and those advertisements that are there usually are for textbooks and professional studies related to the field that the journal covers. Also, while publication in the first two categories requires the writer to simply please the editor, publication in professional and academic journals requires peer review. Peer review means that the essay was sent to the editor, who inturn sent the essay to reviewers, who critique the manuscript and send it back to the editor and writer for revision. These cycle can be repeated. Essays in professional journals will also contain a complete list of source materials where the articles and essays in the first two categories may or may not name their sources.

Books or Magazines: Which Way Should You Go?

Journals and Magazines are typically more current than books, often making them a better source of information. They also do not require you to read a whole book to get the little bits of information you might be looking for. By the time a book reaches the shelves of a library, it may be as much as two or three years behind current scholarship on the topic. There is a long process of researach, writing, and revision before a book even reaches the mechancial publishing stage where type setting, galley proofing, final publication and distribution can take at least six months. The general rule of thumb is don't use any source that is older than 10 years unless it is a piece of work absolutely critical to a particular field's scholarship.

How About Personal Interviews?

Pesornal Interviews are often one good way to get the testimony of experts. Of course, as you can see by watching news coverage of any trial, you can find an expert to say just about anything you need to be said. Lawyers are a good example to illustrate this: Lawyers are experts in the field of law, but for every lawyer who wins a case, and has presumably made the proper judgement about the law and circumstances in question, there is a lawyer who loses that same case who made a less valid interpretation of the same circumstances.

How About the Internet as a Source?

You've likely heard all of the hype about the Information Superhighway that is the World Wide Web and Internet. And there is as much good information out on the Web as many Net-heads say. However, there is at least as much garbage out on the Web as there is useful information. The problem then becomes how to tell the good from the bad and the ugly. Remember that anyone can put up a web site. AS with any other form of publication there are no editors. Once in awhile aservice provider won't allow certain material on their machines, but that is rare. On the Web, be extra critical of what you see. Along with solid information and scholarship, there are a lot of wackos out there. If you are not sure about the material you find at web sites, use the questioning strategies in the following two links to give you a better idea about the material on any given web site.

Statistics? You Want to Use Statistics?

Mark Twain said "There are lies, damned lies, and statistics." A more recent maxim about statistics is that they are like bikinis: Interesting for what they reveal, but essential for what they cover up. Keep both of these points in mind as you provide your reader with statistics to clarify or support a point in your essay. While statistics can bring certain parts of an argument to light, don't rely on them to make your argument for you and don't use so many of them as to make your essay read like a spread sheet. Your reader won't get your argument if they fall asleep!

Paragraph Guidelines

Paragraph Function

Paragraphs give the writer control and the reader access. Paragraphs are often seen as one distinct space for developing one distinct idea.

Length

Depends on writer's purpose and reader's needs. One word to ?

Short paragraphs make for quicker reading, but a choppier flow often results.

Topic Statement

Thesis statement for a paragraph. Asserts a sub-point of the main thesis point. Used to orient the reader to what comes next. Orients the writer to what you are going to say next.

Paragraphs Require

• Distribution into sentences: Whether there are two or twenty sentences in a paragrah, the sentences must be coherent if you want to have a coherent paragraph.
• Explicit reference: The bearing of each sentence in the paragraph on the sentences that come before needs to be explicit.
• Parallel construction: When consecutive sentences illustrate the same idea, they should, as far as possible, be formed alike using parallel contructions.
• Indication of theme: The opening sentence, unless obviously prepatory, is expected to indicate the scope and subject of the paragraph.
• Unity: Unity implies a sustained purpose. Sentences should posses a unity that implies a clarity of purpose and forbids digression.
• Consecutive Arrangement: Related topics should be kept close together. Each sentence should follow the plan of the paragraph in its appropriate place.
• Marking of subordination: Principle and subordinate elements should have their relative importance clearly indicated.
• For increased coherence: Repeat key words and phrases.

Updated Version of Paragraph Requirements

• There must be a central topic idea.
• Topic development is limited to the paragraph in which the topic is broached.
• The topic sentence must express the topic idea.
• Each paragraph must be at least one sentence or a series of sentences.

In each Paragraph, be Conscious of the Ordering of Ideas

• general to specific: Think of yourself as a camera zooming in on the topic and its details.
• specific to general: Think of yourself as a camera pulling back from the closeup to get a wider shot.
• emphatic order (of importance): Could go from most-to-least or least-to-most. It's best to conclude with the information you want to remain most strongly with your reader.
• spatial: Choose a direction and stick with it. Work from top to bottom, bottom to top, left to right, or what have you.
• chronological: Begin with what happened first and take it from there.

Most importantly, be consistent with whatever ordering strategy you choose!

Making use of the Toulmin Model of Logic

• Provide your reader with some general discussion of a point that supports the essay's thesis.
• Provide an explicit/specific example/detail to illustrate the general discussion.
• Explain in a few sentences how the explicit/specific example/detail supports the essay's thesis.

Paragraph Elements

Thesis Guidelines and General Examples

Thesis Guidelines and Examples

• "Thesis" comes from a Greek word meaning "the act of laying down"
• A thesis is a proposition that a writera dvances and offers to maintain by argument.
• A thesis is a concise statement of what the reader should come to believe.
• A thesis cannot be a statement of fact; it must have an argumentative edge.

A thesis cannot be a sentence fragment; it must be a complete sentence.

poor: How life is in a ghetto.

better: Residents of a ghetto tend to have a higher death rate, a higher infant mortality rate, and a higher unemployment rate than do residents of the suburbs.

A thesis must not be worded as a question. (Usually the answer to a question could be a thesis.)

poor: Do Americans really need large refrigerators?

better: If Americans did their marketing daily, as do most Europeans, they could save energy because they could use smaller refrigerators.

A thesis must not be too broad.

poor: The literature of mythology contains many resurrection stories.

better: One of the oldest resurrection myths is the story of the Egyptian god Osiris.

A thesis should not contain unrelated elements.

poor: All novelists seek the truth, and some novelists are good psychologists.

better: In their attempt to probe human nature, many novelist become excellent psychologists.

A thesis should not contain phrases such as "I think" or "in my opinion" because they weaken the writer's argument.

poor: In my opinion public buildings should be required by law to have no-smoking zones because of the adverse effects on health of "passive smoke."

better: Public buildings should be required by law to have no-smoking zones because of the adverse effects on health of "passive smoking."

A thesis should not be expressed in vague language.

poor: Religion as part of the school curriculum should be avoided because it can cause trouble.

better: Religion as part of the school curriculum should be avoided because each student in a classroom may have a different religion.

A thesis must not be expressed in muddled or incoherent language.

poor: Homosexuality is a status offense to the effect that the participants are willing so that the relationship is voluntary in character rather than the type described in a victim-perpetrator model.

better: Homosexuality between consenting adults should be considered an alternate life-style rather than a crime.

A thesis should not be expressed in figurative language.

poor: The Amazons of today are trying to purge all the stag words from the language.

better: Feminists are trying to eliminate the use of sex-biased words from public documents and publications.

Thesis Composing Process

One Way to Compose A Thesis

Use this process as one way that you can narrow the focus of your essay and come up with something approaching a workable thesis statement.

Subject

The Subject of your essay will typically be part of the assignment. In your first essay (the narrative), the subject was you--the writer. With this second essay, the subject is how someone in your life is important to you.

Topic

Having chosen your subject, the next step is finding a topic that meets the requirements of the assignment. With the narrative you needed to tell a story about yourself that was interesting or important and helped make you the person you are today. Some have written about a parent's illness, mishaps with the police, an accident involving their child, and so on.

With the second assignment you are to make some point about a particular person and their importance in your life.

For the third assignment, let us look at the treatment of the nuclear power industry on the Internet. Notice how we have narrowed the topic from a social issue and its treatment on the Internet to a specific topic: the treatment of the nuclear power industry on the Internet. The next step is developing a purpose for the essay.

Purpose Statement

The essay's purpose is what was referred to as the 'rhetorical goal' in the first assignment's readings. Establishing this goal may be the most important step of composing the essay. Without this goal, it is difficult, if not impossible, to make decisions about such things as whether the chosen details are relevant, whether the essay makes the point you hope for, or whether you are done or not. This is where a purpose statement comes in handy.

Try writing a statement something like this: "The purpose of my essay is to show my classmates and teacher (your intended or assigned audience) that such and such is true." An example follows.

• The purpose of my essay is to show my classmates and teacher how my father's father is an inspiration to me because of the way he was able to overcome much of the racial prejudice he faced in his life without becoming embittered.
• The purpose of my essay is to show my classmates and teacher that the Declaration of Independence is a finely crafted document that offers insight to the social and cultural views of the writers, and not just their political views.
• The purpose of my essay is to show my classmates and teacher that the information on the Internet and World Wide Web concerning the nuclear power industry is unbalanced and those who are pro-nuclear power owe it to the public to provide relevant information in support of the nuclear power industry. To do this, I'll have to describe what the web sites that are pro-nuclear contain while making it clear that they are inadequate to the job.

Thesis

To get a thesis statement from a purpose statment, simply omit the first section of the purpose statement:

• "The purpose of my essay is to show my classmates and teacher that the information on the Internet and World Wide Web concerning the nuclear power industry is unbalanced and those who are pro-nuclear power owe it to the public to provide relevant information in support of the nuclear power industry."

This leaves us with a thesis statement:

• "The information on [some particular website found on] the Internet and World Wide Web concerning the nuclear power industry is unbalanced and those who are pro-nuclear power owe it to the public to provide relevant information in support of the nuclear power industry."

This is a statement that readers will most likely either agree or disagree with. Such a thesis statement puts the writer in the place of having to prove their point. The writer and reader can also evaluate each piece of support material in relation to the thesis to gauge its relevancy and importance to the essay and the essay's argument.

Tying Evidence to Thesis

When writing an essay that makes a point, that point is typically expressed in the essay's thesis statement. For this course, that thesis is also referred to as the essay's goal, the essay's claim, the essay's controlling idea, or the point of the essay. If you are unsure about your essay’s goal, then check the file "One way to compose a thesis" that includes this material.

Because this thesis is the point that the essay seeks to make or discuss, the material presented in the essay, the evidence and details, should all work to support the thesis. If the evidence/detail does not support the thesis, then it most likely should be cut from the essay.

Often the best way to know if the evidence supports the claim is to explain how the evidence supports the claim. If you cannot construct this explanatory link between the evidence and claim, then it is not likely your reader will either. As the writer, it is your job to construct the links between your evidence and your claims. It is your job to make it as easy as possible for the reader see things your way.

Providing this explanatory link between your data and claim forces the reader to see things your way, at least for as long as they are reading the essay. If you do not provide this link, then either your reader will not make the link you are hoping for or they won't even try to make any link. When you provide the link, as the writer, you have greater control over the response of the reader.

In brief, a outline of the essay would look like this:

• explanation as to how evidence supports thesis in the same paragraph and so on until the conclusion

Keep this in mind as you are working on the essay and revisions.

Citation Guidelines

Modern Language Association Stylesheet

Newspaper || Magazines || Journals || Books || Anthologies || References || Electronic Sources

NEWSPAPER

Unsigned Article

On the Works Cited page, give the title of the article "in quotes," the name of the newspaper underlined or italicized, the day, month, and year if the article's publication, a colon, and the section and page's name underlined or italicized, the volume number, the year (in parentheses), and the inclusive page numbers of the article.

Smith, John. "The Rising Cost of Peanut Butter Has Consumers Going Nuts." Psychology Today Jan. - Feb. 1996: 23-25.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last name and page number on which the quoted material appears in the journal.

(Smith 24)

Signed Article

On the Works Cited page, do the same as above but put the author’s name first. Note that the name is in reverse order. Also note that if the newspaper’s name does not give the city of origin, you put the city in [brackets] after the name.

Smith, John. “The Rising Cost of Peanut Butter Has Consumers Going Nuts.” Daily Bugle [Los Angeles] 29 Feb. 1996: A1+.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author’s last name and the section and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the paper.

(Smith A1)

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MAGAZINES

Weekly

On the Works Cited page, give the author’s name, the title of the article “in quotes,” the name of the magazine underlined or italicized, the day, month and year of the article’s publication , a colon, and the inclusive page numbers of the article.

Smith, John. “The Rising Cost of Peanut Butter Has Consumers Going Nuts.” Newsweek 29 Feb.

1996: 23-25.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author’s last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the magazine.

(Smith 23)

Monthly

On the Works Cited page, give the author’s name, the title of the article “in quotes,” the name of the magazine underlined or italicized, the months and year of the article’s publication, a colon, and the inclusive page numbers of the article.

Smith, John. “The Rising Cost of Peanut Butter Has Consumers Going Nuts.” Texas Monthly Feb. 1996: 23-25

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author’s last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the magazine.

(Smith 24)

Bimonthly

On the Works Cited page, give the author’s name, the title of the article “in quotes,” the name of the magazine underlined or italicized, the months and year of the article’s publication, a colon, and the inclusive page numbers of the article.

Smith, John. “The Rising Cost of Peanut Butter Has Consumers Going Nuts.” Psychology Today Jan. - Feb. 1996: 23-25

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author’s last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the magazine.

(Smith 24)

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JOURNALS

Journal with Continuous Pagination

On Works Cited page, give the author’s name, the title of article "in quotes," the journal’s name underlined or italicized, the volume number, the year (in parentheses), and the inclusive page numbers of the article.

Smith, John. "The Rising Cost of Peanut Butter Has Consumers Going Nuts." Journal for the Spread of Peanut Butter 22 (1996): 23-25.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author’s last name and page number on which the quoted material appears in the journal.

(Smith 24)

Journal Paging each Issue Separately

After giving the journal’s name, include volume number and issue number, year (in parentheses), and page numbers.

Smith, John. "The Rising Cost of Peanut Butter Has Consumers Going Nuts." Journal for the Spread of Peanut Butter 22.3 (1996) : 23-25.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author’s last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the journal.

(Smith 24)

Journal that Uses only Issue Numbers

After giving the journal’s name, include issue number, year (in parentheses), and page numbers.

Smith, John. "The Rising Cost of Peanut Butter Has Consumers Going Nuts." Journal for the Spread of

Peanut Butter 3 (1996) : 23-25.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author’s last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the journal.

(Smith 24)

Journal Paging each Issue Separately

After giving the journal's name, include volume number and issue number, year (in parentheses), and page numbers.

Smith, John. "The Rising Cost of Peanut Butter Has Consumers Going Nuts." Journal for the Spread of Peanut Butter 22.3 (1996) : 23-25.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the journal.

(Smith 24)

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BOOK

One Author

On the Works Cited page, give the author's name, the book's title underlined or italicized, the city of publication, a colon, the publisher, and the year of publication.

Smith , John. The Great Peanut Butter War. New York: Houghton, 1996.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the book.

(Smith 24)

Two or Three Authors

On the Works Cited page give the names of the authors in the order presented on the cover. All other information is the same as with one author. Note that the second author's name is not reversed.

Smith, John, and Jane Doe. The Great Peanut Butter War Revisited. New York: Houghton, 1996.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last names and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the book.

(Smith and Does 24)

More than Three Authors

On the Works Cited page, give only the name of the first author and then the designation et al. To stand for the others. All other information is the same as with one author. Note that if a subtitles given on the cover, it appears after the main title, separated by a colon.

Smith, John, et. al. The Great Peanut Butter War: The Jelly and Honey Battles. New York: Houghton, 1996.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last name, the designation et al., and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the book.

(Smith et al. 24)

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ANTHOLOGY

On the Works Cited page, give the author’s name, the title of work ("in quotes" if it is a short story, poem, or essay; underlined or italicized if it is the name of a novel or a play), the title of the anthology underlined or italicized, the editor of anthology, the volume number (if necessary), the city of publication, a colon, the publisher, the year of publication, and inclusive page numbers of the work as it appears in the anthology.

Smith, John. "Ode to Peanut Butter." The Norton Anthology of Peanut Butter Literature. Ed. P. Brittle. Vol. 2. New York: Houghton, 1996. 34-36.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the book.

(Smith 35)

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REFERENCE SOURCES

Signed Article

For a reprinted article excerpt in Contemporary Literary Criticism, Twentieth Century Literary Criticism, Nineteenth Century Literary Criticism, Short Story Criticism, Poetry Criticism, Drama Criticism, Literary Criticism from 1400 to 1800, and Classical and Medieval Literary Criticism, use the anthology format.

Bayley, John. "Return of the Native." Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. Jean C. Stine and Daniel Marowski. Vol. 31. Detroit: Gale, 1985. 260-261.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the book.

(Bayley 260)

For signed articles in the Dictionary of Literary Biography follow the anthology format.

Keating, H. R. F. "Agatha Christie." Dictionary of Literary Biography. Ed. Bernard Benstock and Thomas F. Staley. Vol. 27. Detroit: Gale, 1989. 68-82.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the book.

(Keating 68)

To cite articles from the Opposing Viewpoint series include the name of the author of the article, title of article "in quotation marks," series title underlined or italicized, editor, place of publication, publisher’s name and year of publication, and page numbers for article you are citing.

Sullum, Jacob. "The Death Penalty Is Just." The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints. Ed. Carol Wekesser. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1991. 57-60.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the book.

(Sullum 57)

Unsigned Article

For unsigned biographical information in CLC, TCLC, NCLC, SSC, PC, LC,CMLC, use the following format.

"Czeslaw Milosz." Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. Jean C. Stine and Daniel G. Marowski. Vol. 31. Detroit: Gale, 1985. 258-259.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the title of the entry "in quotes" and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the book.

("Czeslaw Milosz" 258)

For unsigned articles in Contemporary Authors use the following format.

"Joel Williamson." Contemporary Authors. Ed. Donna Olendorf. Vol. 144. Detroit: Gale, 1994. 487

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the title of the entry "in quotes" and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the book.

("Joel Williamson" 487)

For unsigned articles in Contemporary Authors New Revision Series use the following format.

"Maud Hart Lovelace." Contemporary Authors New Revision Series. Ed. Susan M. Trosky. Vol. 39 Detroit: Gale, 1992. 240-241.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the title of the entry "in quotes" and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the book.

("Maud Hart Lovelace." 240)

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ELECTRONIC SOURCES

WWW (World Wide Web) Sites

To cite files from the World Wide give the author's name (if known), the full title of the web page quoted from "in quotation marks," the title of the web site's homepage (from the window bar) underlined or in italics, the full http address, and the date of visit (in parentheses).

American Dental Association. "Fluorides and Fluoridation." Facts About Fluoride.Http://www.ada.org/consumer/fluoride/articles/fa01.html. (10 Feb. 1997).

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last name ( or an abbreviation if written by a corporate author with a long name) and the page number on which the quoted material appears on a printout of the web page. Look at the beginning of the web page or at the very end (see whose name follows the © symbol) to locate the author.

(American Dental Association 2)

Expanded Academic ASAP

Entries from an electronic online journal should include: name of the author (if given), title of the document "in quotation marks," title of the journal underlined or italicized, volume number, issue number or the identifying number, year or date of publication (in parentheses), number of pages or paragraphs (if given) or n.pag ("no pagination"), publication medium (Online), name of the computer network, and date of access.

Galston, William. "Divorce American Style." The Public Interest 124 (Summer 1996) : 15 pp. Online. Expanded Academic ASAP. 11 Feb. 1997.

When giving the parenthetical citation in the body of the paper, include the author's last name and the page number on which the quoted material appears in the printout of the information.

(Galston 3)

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Conducting Research Online

SFCC Library: Electronic Resources contains a database called ProQuest. proQuest contains magazine and journal articles of a more scholarly sort. You can start your search by using your author's name and then narrow it down from there if necessary. The best articles, the most reliable information, is found in the scholarly publications. Trade magazines can be good, as can magazines in general. newspapers tend to be the least helpful, but you never know. Click on the Proquest link found on the Electronic Resources page.

Literary Databases also contain a good deal of relevant information on the various authors. Within these articles, you may find some information relating to some point you are working to develop.

SFCC's Book Catalog may also be of help, but you'll want to get to campus to pick up books. I'm not sure how fast they are about getting books out to rural areas.

Essay Draft Response Questions

Essay Peer Draft Evaluation Questions

Answer each of the below questions for essays written by each of your book club members (the five member group(s) need respond to just three of their group members' essays--just be sure everyone gets three). Please complete your responses by the stated deadline.

• What about the introduction interests and orients you as a reader? At this point, why would you (not) continue reading this essay if you did not have to? Is there a particular introduction strategy you can recommend to the writer, such as an anecdote, a history of the issue, something along those lines, that might better get a reader's attention and provide an indication of the topic and where the essay will be going? If so, provide that suggestion.
• Write down what you see as the essay's thesis. Why is the thesis appropriate for the assignment? Explain what you see about the point as being debatable.
• Can you suggest a way to better focus the topic and thesis? Is this a fresh/engaging look at the topic? If not, suggest a fresh perspective to the writer.
• Based on your reading of the essay, what needs to be emphasized?
• Based on your reading of the essay, what seems to be missing or understated?
• Based on your reading of the essay, what is hinted at but not made clear? How might this material be made clearer? Give the writer some suggestions if this need exists.
• What evidence (from either the text or the expected research) in the paper supports the writer's assertions? How well does the writer make use of this evidence? Do you see any logical inconsistencies regarding the use of evidence? If so, offer a way to correct those you see.
• Explain why/how the writer does (not) persuade you to accept their point.
• Are there any mechanical errors that need revision? Show the author the most glaring errors. However, do not edit the paper for them.
• If you were to change one thing in this paper, suggest that change to the writer.

Literary Theories

Pragmatism is a collection of many different ways of thinking. Most of the thinkers who describe themselves as pragmatists point to some connection with practical consequences or real effects as vital components of both meaning and truth. Some pragmatists object to the view that beliefs represent reality and argue that beliefs are dispositions which qualify as true or false depending on how helpful a disposition proves in accomplishing the believer's goals. For this type of pragmatist it is only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment that theories acquire meaning, and only with a theory's success in this struggle that it becomes true. Pragmatists do not hold that anything that is practical or useful, or that anything that helps to survive merely in the short-term, should be regarded as true. Instead, most of them argue that what should be taken as true is that which contributes the most good over the longest course.

Deconstruction is used to denote a philosophy of meaning that deals with the ways that meaning is constructed and understood by writers, texts, and readers. One way of understanding the term is that it involves discovering, recognizing, and understanding the underlying — and unspoken and implicit — assumptions, ideas, and frameworks that form the basis for thought and belief. It has various shades of meaning in different areas of study and discussion, and is, by its very nature, difficult to define without depending on "un-deconstructed" concepts. Deconstruction is neither an analysis, a critique, a method, an act, nor an operation, but an attempt to demonstrate that Western thought has not satisfied its quest for a "transcendental signifier" that will give meaning to all other signs.

Feminist literary criticism is informed by feminist theory, or by the politics of feminism more broadly. In the most general and simple terms, feminist literary criticism before the 1970s -- the first and second waves of feminism -- was concerned with the politics of women's authorship and the representation of women's condition within literature. With the more complex conceptions of gender and subjectivity and third-wave feminism, feminist criticism has taken a variety of new routes. It has considered gender in the terms of existing relations of power, and as a concrete political investment. While it has been closely associated with the birth and growth of queer studies, the more traditionally central feminist concern with the representation and politics of women's lives remains.

Formalism/New Criticism: While these two schools are separate and distinct, they can also be looked at together as both privledge the text itself over what goes into the making or reading of the text. They sometimes refers to inquiry into the form (rather than the content) of works of literature, such as plot, genre concerns (such as with a captivity narrative) but usually refers broadly to approaches to interpreting or evaluating literary works that focus on features of the text itself (especially properties of its language) rather than on the contexts of its creation (biographical, historical or intellectual) or the contexts of its reception. Adherents were/are emphatic in their advocacy of close reading and attention to texts themselves, and their rejection of criticism based on extra-textual sources, especially biography.

Marxist criticism is a loose term describing literary criticism informed by the philosophy and/or the politics of Marxism. The simplest goals of Marxist literary criticism can include an assessment of the political "tendency" of a literary work, determining whether its social content or its literary form are "progressive"; however, this is by no means the only or the necessary goal. Marxist literary critics have also been concerned with applying lessons drawn from the realm of aesthetics to the realm of politics. Marxist criticism can be about identifying the class struggle within a text.

New Historicism is an approach to literary criticism and theory based on the premise that a literary work should be considered a product of the time, place and circumstances of its composition rather than as an isolated creation of genius. It had its roots in a reaction to the "New Criticism" of formal analysis of works of literature that were seen by a new generation of professional readers as taking place in a vacuum. New Historicists aim simultaneously to understand the work through its historical context and to understand cultural and intellectual history through literature, which documented the new discipline of the history of ideas. Michel Foucault based his approach both on his theory of the limits of collective cultural knowledge and on his technique of examining a broad array of documents in order to understand the episteme of a particular time. New Historicism is claimed to be a more neutral approach to historical events, and is sensitive towards different cultures.

Post-colonialism (also known as post-colonial theory) grapples with the legacy of colonial rule. As a literary theory or critical approach it deals with literature produced in countries that were once, or are now, colonies of other countries. It may also deal with literature written in or by citizens of colonizing countries that takes colonies or their peoples as its subject matter. Post-colonialism deals with many issues for societies that have undergone colonialism: the dilemmas of developing a national identity in the wake of colonial rule; the ways in which writers from colonized countries attempt to articulate and even celebrate their cultural identities and reclaim them from the colonizers; the ways knowledge of colonized people have served the interests of colonizers, and how knowledge of subordinate people is produced and used; and the ways in which the literature of the colonial powers is used to justify colonialism through the perpetuation of images of the colonized as inferior. The creation of binary oppositions structure the way we view others. Such opposition was used to justify a destiny to rule on behalf of the colonizer, or 'white man's burden'.

Psychoanalytic literary criticism is criticism which, in method, concept, theory or form, is influenced by the tradition of psychoanalysis begun by Sigmund Freud. The object of psychoanalytic literary criticism, at its very simplest, can be the psychoanalysis of the author or of a particularly interesting character. In this directly therapeutic form, it is very similar to psychoanalysis itself, closely following the analytic interpretive process discussed in Freud's Interpretation of Dreams. The concepts of psychoanalysis can be deployed with reference to the narrative or poetic structure itself, without requiring access to the authorial psyche (an interpretation motivated by Lacan's remark that "the unconscious is structured like a language").

Reader-response criticism is a literary theory that arose in response to the textual emphasis of New Criticism from the 1940s to the 1960s in the West. New Criticism had emphasized that only that which is within a text is part of the meaning of a text. No appeal to the authority or intention of the author, nor to the psychology of the reader, was allowed for the most orthodox New Critics. Reader-response criticism is a group of approaches to understanding literature that have in common an emphasis on the reader's role in the creation of the meaning of a literary work. Reader-response theory recognizes the reader as an active agent who imparts "real existence" to the work by reading it and completes its meaning "by applying codes and strategies". It is concerned with the reader's contribution to a text. It stands in total opposition to the text-oriented theories of formalism and the New Criticism, in which the reader's role interpreting literary works are not taken into account. In general, one can group reader-response theorists into three groups: those who focus upon the reader's experience and psychology, those who concentrate on the linguistic and rhetorical dynamic of audience, and those who concentrate on readers as cultural and historical ciphers.

Structuralism is an approach to analysing narrative material by examining the underlying invariant structure. For example, a literary critic applying a structuralist literary theory might say that the authors of the West Side Story did not write anything "really" new, because their work has the same structure as Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. In both texts a girl and a boy fall in love (a "formula" with a symbolic operator between them would be "Boy +LOVE Girl") despite the fact that they belong to two groups that hate each other ("Boy's Group -LOVE Girl's Group") and conflict is resolved by their death. The versatility of structuralism is such that a literary critic could make the same claim about a story of two friendly families ("Boy's Family +LOVE Girl's Family") that arrange a marriage between their children despite the fact that the children hate each other ("Boy -LOVE Girl") and then the children commit suicide to escape the arranged marriage; the justification is that the second story's structure is an 'inversion' of the first story's structure: the relationship between the values of love and the two pairs of parties involved have been reversed. Structuralistic literary criticism argues that the "novelty value of a literary text" can lie only in new structure, rather than in the specifics of character development and voice in which that structure is expressed.

Type any of the above terms into wikipedia.org and you'll see where I got my summaries, and then some.

Summarizing

Summarizing what you read

1. Find the Topic
• Ask yourself, what is the article/essay/chapter about?
• To answer that question, preview the text by reading the title, sub-titles, boldface headings and any other headings that may have been used.
• If you don't have the topic after that, read the first and last paragraphs.
• If you still don’t have the topic, read the first sentence of the remaining paragraphs.
2. Locating and Stating the Main Idea
• Ask yourself, what is the author’s main point on the topic?
• To answer, preview by reading the title, sub-titles, boldface heading and any other headings. Look at any charts or graphs provided. Read the first sentence of each paragraph and the entire first and last paragraphs.
• If you find a sentence that appears to state the main idea, underline and make a note in the margin.
• Using your own words, write the main idea down in a complete sentence.
3. Identifying the Major Details
• Ask yourself, how does the author support the main idea?
• Preview the article to find the topic and main idea.
• Look for signal words and phrases that help identify major details. Signal words and phrases are, for example, first (or second, or third, etc.), for example, on the other hand, in contrast, finally.
• Break longer works into sections. Read the first line of every paragraph to help determine where to break up the sections.
• Determine the main idea of each section; the main idea of a section is usually a major detail within the larger text.
• Label each section by writing the topic of that section in the margin.
4. Composing the Summary
• Opening sentence should contain text’s title, author’s name, and the main idea. (Don't worry about this one for journal entries.)
• Provide major details of the text by changing the major detail phrases into complete sentences.
• Provide minor details as needed/allowed to explain or clarify the major details (don’t include minor details in précis summary).
• Must be written primarily in your own words. More than three words from the original requires use of quote marks. Do not string together a series of quotes.
5. Responding
• Record your first reactions to the ideas in the text and how they were expressed.
• What did you learn that was new?
• What was reinforced that you already knew?
• How does any of this fit with your existing beliefs?

Summary must be devoid of summarizer’s stated opinion, must maintain perspective and proportion of original, but must be in summarizer’s own words.

Adapted from Read and Respond by Swinton and Agoposowicz

Plot

Plot: Five Steps to Understanding Stories

Plato described plot as the imitation of action or the
arrangement of the incidents. The arrangement of the incidents or events must have a
causal, inevitable relationship. in other words, there must be a readily identifiable
cause-and-effect relationship in the chain of events.

Aristotle broke plot down into three parts

1. The beginning--that which does not itself follow anything by
   causal necessity, but after which something comes to be.
2. The middle--that which follows something as some other thing
   follows it.
3. The end--that which follows something, but has nothing following
   it.

Others have broken plot down to five sections. If you ever watch
Elizabethan drama, the five acts will follow the below progression. These five steps are
one of the best ways to break down a stories components.

1. Situation
2. Complication
3. Climax
4. Denouement
5. Resolution

Plot: Loooking at the Parts of a Narrative

Read the below short-short story and we'll then
look at the elements of plot within it.

Chapter VII

While the bombardment was knocking the trench to pieces at
Possalta, he lay very flat and sweated and prayed oh jesus christ get me out of here.
  Dear jesus please get me out.  Christ please please please christ.  If
you'll only keep me from getting killed I'll do anything you say. I believe in you and
I'll tell everyone in the world that you are the only one that matters.  Please
please dear jesus. The shelling moved further up the line.  We went back to work on
the trench and inthe morning the sun came up and the day was hot and muggy and cheeful and
quiet. The next night back at Mestre he did not tell the girl he went upstairs wtih at the
Villa Rosa about Jesus. And he never told anybody.

--from Ernst Hemingway's In Our Time

Looking at Plot: Situation

This passage contains the story's Situation

(relationships, compulsions, oppositions, conflict, instability):

While the bombardment was knocking the trench to pieces at
Possalta, he lay very flat and sweated and prayed oh jesus christ get me out of here.

• The situation typically includes an introduction of characters and
  any background that will be necessary to understand the story's development.
  • While we don't get the character's name, we are introduced to him
    as a human being. 
  • With the shelling that is going on, we also get the background we
    need to understand the remainder of the story.

h2 align="center">Looking at Plot: Complication

The Complication (deepening of oppositions,
heightening of conflicts, intensification of tension, the plot thickens):

Dear jesus please get me out.  Christ please please
please christ.  If you'll only keep me from getting killed I'll do anything you say.
I believe in you and I'll tell everyone in the world that you are the only one that
matters.  Please please dear jesus.

• With the complication, this is usually where you can begin to tell
  the good from the bad, the hero (protagonist: driver of the action) from the bad guy/gal
  (antagonist: the character in opposition to the protagonist) and who is allied with whom.
• The complication here is that we can see the protagonist is
  praying, but the fact that the author uses lower case letters for traditionally
  capitalized words (jesus, christ, you) shows us that the man doing the praying does not
  below in the God to whom he prays. 

Looking at Plot: Climax

Climax (revelation, recognition, crisis):

The shelling moved further up the line.

• This is where decisions are made and actions are taken that make
  the outcome of the story unavoidable, assuming the plot is well constructed.
• This choice as the climax is not absolute; the reason I've chosen
  it is because it is a turning point for the character.  The crisis is past and the
  remainder of the plot can play itself out.

A Look at Plot: Denouement/Unraveling

Denouement/Unraveling ( reappraisal,
showdown,catastrophe, solution ):

We went back to work on the trench and in the morning the sun
came up and the day was hot and muggy and cheerful and quiet.

• In this instance, we see a reappraisal, though it doesn't seem to have happened on a
  conscious level.  Despite the terror and promises of the previous night, things have
  returned to normal.  We can pretty much guess what is going to happen next.

Looking at Plot: Resolution

Resolution (stability with change) :

The next night back at Mestre he did not tell the girl he
went upstairs wtih at the Villa Rosa about Jesus. And he never told anybody.

• The story is concluded, the conflict has played itself out and all
  the damage has been done and some sort of recovery may have begun.
• Here we can see that the story is indeed done, the protagonist has
  gone back on his word, and things will go on as they did before this episode.

Questions to ask about Plot

Here are some questions to ask yourself as you work to
understand plot.

• What are the compulsions that drive the major characters?
• What are the obstacles these characters face in achieving whatever
  goals they have articulated?
• Is there a time crunch?
• Does the protagonist make things happen? (Be definition, the
  answer should be "yes" so also ask yourself what are these things and why is the
  protagonist making them happen?)
• Is the ending inevitable and surprising?
• Is there a fatal flaw in any of the major or minor characters?
• Is there a personality trait that decides the course of action?

More Plot

How Does the Author Manipulate Plot?

When you read a narrative, it helps to be able to tell the
difference between the story and the plot. The sequence
of events which transpire, beginning with what happens first and continuing to what
happens last, is called the story; the arrangement is chronological, and no special
emphasis or importance is given to those events. Plot, on the other hand, is the
manipulation of the events of the story by the author in order to create impact, to give
special meaning to the story's themes, or to develop the characters. It is important to
remember that the plot is wholly shaped by the author to his design. One can draw a
diagram of a story or a plot to detect their structures and follow their movements. A
story, based on the definition given above, looks like this:

----.----.------.----.------.----------.-->

     A     B       C
    D       E
             F

Events A-F appear on the line in the order they
transpired, and the story heads in only one direction, forward. Plots have more shape when
you try to diagram them. Here are three common plot structures:

The Aristotelian plot generally orders
its events (A-F) chronologically but begins with an initial conflict, usually some sort of
problem, that the hero (protagonist) must solve. However, the hero finds obstacles or
barriers (complications)--usually natural such as storms or wild animals, from opposing
characters (villains or antagonists), or from weaknesses within the hero's own
character--and as the hero attempts to overcome these obstacles, it creates a rise in
tension in the action (what the characters do within the story) and in the readers. The
story nears its conclusion in the climax when the obstacles are overcome and the initial
conflict is resolved. Any loose ends in the story are solved in the denouement, and the
narrative officially ends. A common form of story shaped by the Aristotelian plot is the
quest. In the quest, the hero is forced on a perilous journey to attain some goal. Often,
the hero learns about himself or herself and undergoes improvement as a person as the goal
is approached, and just as often, the hero finds it is this self-improvement that holds
the key to his or her success.

In the Loop, the story begins in the
present (also called the frame of the story) to establish the context of the narrative but
then returns to the past, where most of the action takes place. Thus, the sequence of
events (A-F) is drastically altered. Later in the story, the action returns to the
present, with the intent that the information given about the past will help the reader
understand what is happening in the spent. Scene E, where the juxtaposition of the two
time periods takes place, thus becomes crucial to our understanding of the plot.

In the X, the plot follows the fortunes
of two major characters. At the beginning, one character (A) is somehow superior to the
other (B), either physically, mentally, economically, spiritually, socially, etc. Often,
this is expressed in the form of a power struggle, with character A having power over
character B. But as the story progresses, Character A declines or worsens as a character,
while character B improves; if there is a power relationship between the two, the reader
can also detect a shift of power. Events A-F, though experienced by both characters, will
have different effects, showing the downfall of the one and the rise of the other. The
crucial event C depicts the moment when the characters trade places, and by the end of the
story, the standing of the characters has been reversed, with character B having the
power.

Crucial to the author's manipulation of the plot is the
idea of information. If the resolution of the plot depends upon the characters solving the
conflicts they face, then it is imperative for the characters to learn how to overcome the
complications in their path. To do this, they must learn something about those
complications, or about themselves, and then be able to act upon what they have learned.
Sometimes, the hero will learn the information he or she needs to resolve the conflict but
may not be in a position to use it. One of the central sources of tension in the story
"I Stand Here Ironing" arises from the fact that the mother, in her memories,
knows exactly why Emily behaves the way she does, but she has been continually prevented
from expressing any of this to Emily, and she finds it impossible to express it to her
unnamed visitor, thus leaving the resolution of the story up in the air. Also, a minor
character might learn something before the hero does because of that character's unique
perspective, and further complications can arise if the character cannot get that
information to the hero. In Othello, for example, Roderigo learns of Iago's
treacherous nature when Iago stabs him in Act V, but his admissions of guilt, and
especially of his part in Cassio's downfall in Act II, come too late to help Othello.

How the information is revealed, and by whom, can be just
as important. For instance, in the Star Wars trilogy, the fact that Luke Skywalker learns
of his father's identity from Darth Vader rather than Ben Kenobi is much more dramatic,
adding an element of shock and surprise. Characters will have "blind spots" when
they are unaware of the information they need, and dramatic irony is created when the
audience knows what the characters do not.

Timing is also crucial. The author can withhold from the
characters the information they need or reveal it as necessary to move the plot forward.
Tragedy and comedy hinge on when the hero overcomes blind spots: if they are overcome in
time, the story ends happily; if not, the story ends tragically.

All of this manipulation will have an effect upon the
audience as well. Our enjoyment of a story, and our understanding of what is happening,
depends heavily upon what we learn about the characters and the problems they face. When
we learn something new about the characters and their situations, we often feel the story
has reached a "turning point," and, as a result, a higher level of tension.
Thus, the author, by determining when to reveal certain pieces of information, can affect
not only the plot, but an audience's response as well.

The author uses several techniques to manipulate
information and shape the story into a plot, and we as an audience can look out for them.
Here is a partial list of techniques:

1) The author chooses when to begin and end the story.

2) The author chooses when to begin and end chapters (if any), often providing
"hooks" to draw readers along and keep them interested.

3) The author chooses the order he wishes to present the events of the story.

4) The author makes transitions in time by employing flashbacks, jump cuts, or parallel
scenes (scenes shown at different times but which happen concurrently). He slows time
within a scene by using description and dialogue, which prolong the pace of the action. He
speeds time with verbal summaries and quick cuts. The pace of drama, unlike fiction, is
influenced more strongly by dialogue because the action on stage can move only as fast as
the characters can speak.

5) The author chooses a narrator. What the narrator knows, perceives and learns can affect
how the plot is resolved (especially if the narrator is a character within the story) and
how it is understood by the audience. This is where point of view and the reliability of
the narrator can become important. Mystery novels often employ a narrator who knows
nothing of the crime so that the solution can be delayed until the end.

6) The author introduces or subtracts characters (or objects or forces) which assist or
prevent the hero from resolving the conflict.

7) The author may use subplots, secondary plots which are analogous to or counterpoints of
the main plot. They will often involve the minor characters and broaden the audience's
understanding of the main plot. Information can be given in subplots which is important in
resolving the central conflict.

Some of the effects these authorial choices have on an
audience are:

1) We feel a sense of opening or closure in the action.

2)We sense a change in the direction of the story--a turning point--for better or worse.
These changes are what create the rise in tension.

3) We feel a heightening of our suspense toward the outcome based on our expectations for
what that outcome will be.

4) We are surprised when those expectations are not met, or met in a way we did not
foresee.

5) We learn something about the characters or the complications that we did not know
before.

6) We see the characters forced to make a decision concerning their course of action.

7) We see the characters withstand reversals (peripety) or make a discovery or recognition
concerning their fate (anagnorisis), often with the latter initiating the former.

**One last thing to remember--a plot will have a story,
but a story will not always have a plot. A plot holds a story within it the way a bottle
holds water, not the other way around.

Pentad

The more of each element a narrative essay contains, the more
likely that narrative essay is to be effective in communicating
the writer's point and effectively developing the essay's
rhetorical goal.

• Setting: place and time: where is it? Be sure your reader
  can see where the action is taking place.
• Character--what are some characteristics of the primary
  characters that you want your reader to understand?
  Describe the character's behavior in order to get these
  points across.
• What is the point of view: Omniscient, limited, or
  dramatic [shown]? Whatever your choice, be consistent.
• Plot is established by a causal linking of events. One
  event must be shown to cause another. Key to revision for
  ideas.
• The theme is the dominant idea expressed in the work. It
  should also be expressed in your thesis/controlling idea
  and developed in the body of your essay. Do your best to
  make it clear to your reader.

The Pentad

Perhaps the best Invention strategy for a narrative essay is
The Pentad, which takes into account that every human action is
influenced by five elements: act (what), scene (where, when),
agent (who), agency (how), and purpose (why).

• Act is anything that happens or could happen or is the
  result of a completed activity.
• Scene is the setting or background of the action.
• Agent is the person or force responsible for or
  influenced by the action.
• Agency is the method that makes a thing happen.
• Purpose is the reason or motive for the action.

As noted in the invention reading, these elements are useful
because they can be used to analyze events, arguments,
characters, or audiences--anything involving human interaction.

The Pentad Taken Further

Answering these questions will give you considerable detail
for a narrative essay. Develop the answers as fully as possible
and you will go a long way toward completing your narrative
essay.

• What is the person doing?
• How did he/she get involved?
• What is the person trying to accomplish?
• How will the person accomplish these goals?
• What obstacles does the person face?
• What action is the person trying to take?
• What other actions are possible?
• How does the setting, the time of the and others involved
  in it affect the person's actions?

Character

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Character

Plato described character as the

"Moral constitution of human personality."

Character can also be defined as the

presence of creatures in art that seem to be human beings of one

sort or another or persons sometimes sketched not as a

individual, but as an example of some vice or virtue.

Characterization

1. The explicit presentation by the

   author of a character through direct exposition,

   illustrated by action often told either by first person

   narrator or omniscient narrator/author

2. The presentation of character in

   action, with little or no explicit comment by the author;

   reader must deduce the attributes of the actor from the

   action

3. The representation from within the

   character of the impact of actions and emotions on

   the character's inner-self, without comment on the

   character by the author: reader should come to clear

   understanding of the character's attributes.

Types of Character Qualities

Static: changes little

or not at all: things happen to character, but nothing happens

within. Pattern of action reveals/exposes character. If character

is revealed bit by bit, character may seem changing, but can be

static.

Dynamic: modified by

actions and experiences.

Flat (one or two

dimensional): constructed around a single idea/quality/

distinguishing behavior; easy to recognize and remember but fails

to recognize the complexities of the ordinary human mind.

Disregards what does not fit the caricature.

Round (three

dimensional): all that a flat character is not: can it surprise

in a convincing way? No surprises = flat, unconvincing in the

surprises = flat

Some Character Roles

Protagonist: Often

referred to as the "hero" but better thought of as the

character that drives the action of the plot.

Antagonist: Often

referred to as the "bad guy" or the "villain"

but better thought of as the character that stands in the way of

the protagonist.

These roles need not be filled

exclusively by characters representing human beings. For

instance, in Steven Crane's "The Open Boat" the

antagonist could be considered to be nature, the stormy sea, or

fate.

More on Character

Character in Fiction and Drama

A character in a work of fiction or drama can be defined as a person, animal, place, or
object that influences (or is influenced by) the plot and that demonstrates a unique
personality.

Thus, because the house in The Amityville Horror influences the plot and
demonstrates a personality, it can be considered a character. Likewise, the cat(s) in
Edgar Allan Poe's "The Black Cat" influence the plot and show personality, and
so they can also be considered characters.

Characters can be classified by the amount of influence they have over the plot. If a
character has a large influence on the plot—that is, if the character's actions have
a significant effect on the outcome of the story—then that character is considered a major
(or main) character. On the other hand, if a character has a small influence on the
plot—that is, if the character's actions have little effect on the outcome of the
story—then that character is considered a minor character.

Characters can also be classified by the amount of change they exhibit in their
personalities. If a character undergoes a significant change in personality, then that
character is considered a dynamic character. If a character shows little or no
change in personality, then that character is considered a static character.

Another method of classifying characters is by the fullness of their personalities. If
a character has several well-defined traits and a complex personality, then that character
is considered a round character. If a character has few (if any) defined traits and
a shallow personality, then that character is considered a flat character.

The most important character in a work, the character whom the story or play seems to
follow, is called the hero or the protagonist (this character can also be
called the title character if his/her name is used as the title of the story
or play). The terms hero and protagonist are often used interchangeably, but
in certain contexts, they are different. The word hero, derived from a Greek word
meaning "protector," originally referred to a man born of one mortal and one
immortal parent and known for courageous and noble exploits. We still look up to heroes as
people with higher moral and physical standards than ourselves. However, some
"heroes" engage in questionable or repulsive behavior; for example, the narrator
in Edgar Allan Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart," who kills his benefactor and buries
him under the floorboards, can hardly be considered noble, so the term hero does
not seem to fit him. The term protagonist is derived from Greek words meaning
"chief actor" or "one who struggles first." However, though the
protagonist is a leader, much like a hero, the term does not carry the connotations of
moral worth as does the word hero. Thus the narrator of "The Tell-Tale
Heart," who is the chief actor of the story, can rightfully be called a protagonist.
In general, the term protagonist can be applied more universally than the term hero.

The hero/protagonist can also be defined as the character who drives the action of the
plot forward; he or she acts, and the other characters react. Again, the protagonist of
"The Tell-Tale Heart" provides us with an example. His growing madness and his
scheme to kill his benefactor are the actions that give the story its meaning; without his
distaste for his benefactor's "Evil Eye," we essentially have no reason for the
story to be told.

Depending on the type of story in which he/she appears, the hero/protagonist may assume
a number of secondary traits. The hero/protagonist of a tragedy, for example, often
suffers a reversal of fortune and falls from a place of prominence in society. Sophocles's
Oedipus, when he learns that he has killed his father and married his mother, abdicates
his title as king of Thebes. In one moment, he is transformed from respected ruler to
despised beggar. The tragic hero/protagonist may also undergo a worsening of character.
Shakespeare's Othello changes from a capable general and loving husband into a capricious
leader and jealous, homicidal revenge-seeker. The tragic hero/protagonist may also become
gradually isolated from his/her society. Shakespeare's Macbeth, after murdering his king,
alienating his friends and allies, and losing his wife, stands alone against his enemies
at the end of the play. The hero/protagonist of a comedy, in contrast, often enjoys an
improvement of fortune, a betterment of character, and a gradual inclusion into his/her
society. In a traditional comedy, the hero/protagonist achieves all three at the end of
the story through marriage, the age-old symbol of a happy union between two people.

The secondary traits of the hero/protagonist may also be determined by how he/she
resolves the conflicts facing him/her. The hero/protagonist may sometimes be classified as
a Bull or a Fox. The Bull is a hero/protagonist who relies on strength to
overcome difficulties. This character type has existed for ages. One prototype, Hercules,
comes to us from Greek Mythology. Hercules is famous for his feats of strength, including
the Twelve Labors. A prototype from the Bible is Sampson, who was terrifically strong but
not very clever; Delilah easily tricked him into revealing the secret of his strength. A
modern-day example of this heroic type would be Arnold Schwartzenegger, who has portrayed
many strong characters in his movies, characters that derive much of their presence from
his muscular physique.

The Fox is a hero/protagonist who relies on cleverness or dexterity to overcome
difficulties. This character type, too, has existed for ages. A famous example in Greek
Mythology is Odysseus, who is renowned for creating the Trojan Horse and for escaping the
Cyclops. In the Bible, Solomon, the ancient ruler of Israel, demonstrates his intelligence
in the well-known story about the two women claiming to be the mother of the same child.
In modern fiction, Sherlock Holmes, the world-famous sleuth, may also be categorized as a
Fox because of his intelligence. An example from modern movies would be Michael J. Fox,
who, as Marty McFly in the movie Back to the Future, escapes from Biff by creating
and using a skateboard.

In some stories, the hero/protagonist may be caught in a dilemma and forced to make a
choice that will affect his/her destiny. In this situation, the hero/protagonist may be
flanked by two characters who each represent one of the choices and who each try to
influence the hero/protagonist to pick the choice they represent. These flanking
characters are sometimes called the Good Angel and the Bad Angel.
In some cartoons, a character, standing in thought, is suddenly visited by an angel on one
shoulder and a devil on the other shoulder, each of whom whispers advice into the
character's ears. A more serious character, Christopher Marlowe's Faust, is also visited
by angels and devils. This image of the hero being flanked by a good and a bad spirit is
derived from the medieval morality plays, in which the hero/protagonist often made moral
decisions that would determine his fate in the afterlife. However, the Good Angel and the
Bad Angel may simply be human characters. Shakespeare's Othello is flanked by his wife
Desdemona, who represents truth, faithfulness, and "turn the other cheek"
justice; and by Iago, who represents treachery, faithlessness, and "eye for an
eye" justice. Oliver Stone uses the Good Angel-Bad Angel format in his movies Platoon
and Wall Street to depict the choices faced by Charlie Sheen's characters. The Good
Angel-Bad Angel characters, as seen above, can appear in many types of stories and dramas.

The character who stands in opposition to the hero/protagonist is called the villain
or the antagonist. As with the terms hero and protagonist, the terms villain
and antagonist are often used interchangeably, but here, too, we should be aware
that these words have different connotations. The word villain originally meant
"feudal serf," one who worked on the country estate of a lord. Because serfs
were of the lowest social class, the term gradually came to mean "vile, brutish
peasant," and now the term describes any "depraved, base-minded" person.
Thus, the word has had strongly negative overtones throughout its history. On the other
hand, the word antagonist is derived from Greek words meaning "one who
struggles against" and lacks the negative connotations of the word villain.

Like the hero/protagonist, the villain/antagonist may assume secondary characteristics
depending on the type of story in which he/she appears. The Bull and Fox categories
described above may sometimes be used to classify the villain/antagonist. Examples of the
Bull as villain are the original Terminator played by Arnold Schwartzenegger, and Biff in Back
to the Future; the supreme example of the Fox as villain is Iago in Shakespeare's Othello.

Some characters may also be classified as stock characters or foil
characters. Stock characters are recognizable stereotypes: the mad scientist, the femme
fatale, the straight-shooting law officer, the psychopathic criminal genius. Each of these
stereotypes has appeared in several stories and so has become familiar. Foil characters,
according to Robert DiYanni, contrast and parallel the main character(s) in a play or
story. Foils are usually minor characters but can sometimes be major characters, and they
are closely associated with the character for whom they serve as a foil. The term foil
derives from jewelry: the foil is the precious metal against which the precious stone is
set; the purpose of the foil is to bring out the brilliance of the gem. Similarly, a foil
character, through comparison and contrast, brings out the brilliance of a main character.
In Shakespeare's Othello, for example, Emilia serves as a foil for Desdemona. In
Act IV, Scene iii, when Desdemona wonders if any woman would cheat on her husband, Emilia
asserts that she would if she gained the world as compensation. Her down-to-earth
attitude, so in contrast to Desdemona's innocence and purity of thought, highlights the
differences between the two women.

In order to analyze a character's personality or motivations, the reader must search
for a pattern in the character's behavior, and in order to discover this pattern, the
reader needs to understand the techniques of characterization, which is the process
by which an author creates a character. Authors rely on four methods to create characters:

1) Through the exposition of the narrator (how the narrator views or judges the
character). The narrator of a story or play may comment on how/he she feels, on what
he/she thinks, on what he/she intends to do. This narrator may also voice an opinion about
other characters, an opinion which helps the reader to understand those characters but
also understand the narrator as well.

2) Through dialogue (what a character says). As with people in real life, what
characters say—and how they say it—reveals much about their personalities. A
character's choice of words can reveal his/her feelings and intentions as well as provide
insights into social status, education level, and area of residence. For instance, a
character who says "I don't have any money" will likely have a background
different than a character who says "I ain't got no money."

3) Through action (what a character does). Again, as with people in real life, what
characters do—and how they do it—reveals much about their personalities. A
character who simply tightens his fist upon hearing that his father has died is likely to
be a different sort of person than one who shouts, screams, and weeps upon hearing the
same news. Also, a reader should make a special note of how closely a character's actions
and dialogue agree. For example, a character who says "I'll be there by
five-thirty" and then arrives at five-thirty can be considered reliable; a character
who says "I'll be there by five-thirty" and then arrives at eleven can be
considered unreliable.

4) Through description (how a character looks/what belongings a character owns). We
often gain our first impression of a person by noting what clothes he or she is wearing,
what car he or she is driving, etc. For example, our impression of a man who wears a grey
flannel suit and drives a Volvo will be different than our impression of a man who wears
shiny black leather and rides a Harley-Davidson.

Staying aware of these methods will help the reader determine if a character is major
or minor, dynamic or static, round or flat. The reader should also use these methods to
determine the reasons behind his/her attitudes towards the characters.

Theme

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Theme

Theme is often seen as the general idea or insight the story,
play, or poem reveals. There is no reason to think that a work of
literature has just one theme. depending upon the perspective
brought to the work, there could be a number of themes.

Theme can also be viewed as an abstract concept made concrete
through its representation in person, action, and image in a work
of literature.

The theme need not be obvious nor a moral or a message, though
some moral inferences may be drawn from the work.

Some typical themes are loss of innocence, initiation into
maturity (known as "coming of age"), and man's
inhumanity or frailty.

Theme is not the plot.

One way to determine a works theme, is to answer the following
questions: How does the title relate to the story? What kind of
change does the protagonist undergo? Any? Why? Are any
observations on life offered up?

Naturalism

Determinists believe that all acts that seem to arise from a person's will are actually the result of causes that determine them. Among these causes can be found the following frames of reference, depending on the epoch and attitudes: fate or necessity (neoclassic), will of God (Calvinist), action of scientific law (Naturalist), or operation of economic forces (Marxist). For the Determinist every act and action has a deeper meaning because these acts and actions are controlled from without and are not really the result of an individual's will or choice.

Setting

Defined: The total environment for the action of a fictional work.

• The time period (such as the 1890's, early 21st century)
• The place (such as downtown Warsaw)
• The historical milieu (such as during the Civil War)
• Social, political, and perhaps even spiritual realities.

Established primarily through description, though narration is used also.

Close attention to clothing, manners, vocabulary, tools, money, historical references and the like will help you to determine the time and the place of the story.

Setting serves as a backdrop against which the action takes place, but it can also have an effect on the action of the story and on the behavior of the characters. The characters in Stephen Crane's short story "The Open Boat," for example, are somewhat at the mercy of their setting--they are stranded in the middle of the ocean--and are in a constant struggle against it.

Setting helps to establish the personality of the characters. What belongings surround a character often determine what he/she is like as a person or how that person sees him-/herself.

Setting can establish the customs and the culture of the characters. A character living in England will have a different way of celebrating Christmas than a person living in America; women and men in India act differently toward each other than do women and men in America; people dress differently, eat differently, worship differently, and speak differently based on where they live.

Our physical environment is the exterior landscape, since it exists outside of our minds and surrounds our bodies. The exterior landscape can be a city, forest, house, room, street, ocean, or any other physical location.

The interior landscape exists within our minds. The interior landscape is a picture of any thoughts, feelings, memories, etc., that we are aware of (that we can "see" in our conscious minds) at a given moment.

Exterior can often be used as a symbol for the interior to give us further insights into the minds of the characters.. However, exterior landscapes can also be used to show contrasts between appearance and mental state, especially if a character is confused or indecisive.

Setting can have thematic meanings. An ancient theme that arises out of setting is the conflict between City and Wilderness. In older times, when humankind's dominance over its environment was less certain than it is now, the city was viewed as a haven against the hostile forces of nature. It was also the center of culture and human endeavor. The wilderness, filled with dangerous animals, brutal weather, and other life-threatening forces (real and imagined), was seen as antagonistic towards humans and their civilizations.

City

--exterior, represents man's control over his environment and over nature, a refuge from the wilderness, and a center of civilization and law.

--interior, it represents the rational, the conscious, the safe, the superego.

Wilderness

--exterior, the abode of lawless creatures and humans; it is the unknown in which dwell dangerous animals, monsters, etc., that constantly challenge humans and their civilizations. Generally perceived as hostile and unsafe to humans, and any desert, uncultivated land, or unexplored sea is likened to the pre-Creation, primordial chaos. However, it is also the setting for journeys, visionary experiences, and quests in which the hero must prove his/her valor. The Wilderness provides the visionary with prophetic insights and the hero with an opportunity to improve status, increase wealth, and gain renown. The Western view of the wilderness as a place to conquer is derived from the Bible, in which God commands mankind to establish dominion over the earth and over the animal kingdom.

--interior, represents the subconscious or irrational, the id, the emotions (anger, fear, lust, greed, insecurity), repressed memories.

Gothic genre upsets this traditional conflict by making the house, otherwise a symbol of safety against the wilderness, the abode of monsters and of the irrational.

Pastoral works against this conflict by promoting the country as an idyllic escape from the corruptive influences of the city. Begun in ancient Rome to provide a diversion for world-weary citizens, the pastoral depicts shepherds as handsome, love-eager poets and shepherdesses as beautiful but coy objects of affection. The pastoral also calls into question the moral degeneration brought about by city life and institutions of power.

Romantic movement of the 19th century, in some ways an outgrowth of the ancient pastoral, also counters this conflict by presenting nature as a beneficial place reflective of God's presence; the city, because of the debilitating effects of machines, industry, and city living, has become the symbol of fear and danger. The city, being a human construct, is seen as faulty and at odds with natural rhythms and processes. The "return to nature" becomes an escape from the harmful influences of mankind.

Explicating Poems

One Way to Explicate a Poem

Examine the Situation in the Poem

• Does the poem tell a story? If yes, what is that story? Is it a narrative poem? Is so, what events occur?
• Does the poem express an emotion or describe a mood? Is it a lyric?
• Poetic Voice: Who is the speaker? Is the poet speaking to the reader directly or is the poem told through a fictional persona? To whom is the speaker speaking? Can you trust the speaker?
• Tone: What is the speaker's attitude toward the subject of the poem? What sort of tone of voice seems to be appropriate for reading the poem out loud? What words, images, or ideas give you a clue to the tone?

Examine the Structure of the Poem

• Form; Look at the number of lines, their length, their arrangement on the page. How does the form relate to content? Is it a traditional form? (e.g., sonnet, limerick) or "free form"? Why do you think the poet chose that form for the poem?
• Movement: How does the poem develop? Are the images and ideas developed chronologically, by cause and effect, by free association? Doe the poem circle back to where it started, or is the movement from one attitude to a different attitude ( e.g., from despair to hope)?
• Syntax: How many sentences are in the poem? Are the sentences simple or complicated? Are the verbs in front of the nouns instead of in the usual "noun-verb" order? Why?
• Punctuation: What kind of punctuation is used in the poem? Does the punctuation always coincide with the end of the poetic line? If so, this is called an end-stopped line. Is there any punctuation in the middle of a line? Why do you think the poet would want you to pause halfway through the line?
• Title: What does the title mean? How does it relate to the poem itself?

Examine the language of the Poem

• Diction or word choice: Is the language colloquial, formal, simple, and/or unusual?
• Do you know what all the words mean? If not, look them up.
• What moods or attitudes are associated with words that stand out for you?
• Allusions: Are there any allusions/references to something outside the poem, such as events or people from history, mythology, or religion? What might be the point of this?
• Imagery: Look at the figurative language of the poem--metaphors, similes, analogies, and personification. how do these images add to the meaning of the poem or intensify the effect of the poem?

Examine the Musical Devices in the Poem

• Rhyme Scheme: Does the rhyme occur in a regular pattern? Irregularly? Is the effect formal, satisfying, musical, funny, disconcerting or something else?
• Rhythm or Meter: In most languages, there is a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a word or words in a sentence. In poetry, the variation of stressed and unstressed syllables and words has a rhythmic effect. What is the tonal effect of the rhythm?
• Other sound effects: alliteration, assonance, consonance, repetition--what tonal effect do they have?
• Has the Poem created a change in mood for you? A change in attitude? How have the technical elements helped the poet create this effect?

Meter

Meter

Meter: the recurrence of rhythmic pattern.

Four basic Patterns

Quantitative: established through units containing regular successions of long and short syllables: classical meter. Syllables considered long if they have a long or short vowel followed by two consonants. Others considered short. two short syllables equal in duration to one long syllable. Somewhat like musical notes.

Accentual: occurrence of syllable marked by stress or accent that determines the basic unit regardless of the number of unstressed syllables: old English versification and sprung meter.

Syllabic: the number of syllables in a line is fixed, though the accent varies.

Accentual-Syllabic: number of accents and syllables are fixed or nearly fixed: most common sort today.

The Foot

The rhythmic unit is known as the foot; A standard foot contains two syllables. See the stress patterns below, because there you will see a variety of feet.

monometer--one foot

dimeter--two feet

trimeter--three feet

tetrameter--four feet

pentameter--five feet

hexameter--six feet

heptameter (fourteener if "iambic")--seven feet

Stress Patterns

Iambic--unstressed syllable followed by stressed syllable: "come live / with me / and be / my love."

Trochaic--accented followed by unaccented syllable. often used in children's rhymes because of sing-song quality: "Jack and Jill / went up the hill /to fetch a pail of water; /Jack fell down / and broke his crown / and Jill came tumbling after."

Anapestic--two unaccented followed by an accented syllable: "Like a child / from the womb / like a ghost / from the tomb"

Dactyll--stressed/accented syllable follow by two unaccented: mannikin

Spondaic--a foot of two accented syllables--usually monosyllabic words in succession. "Hot sun / cool fire" It's rare for a polysyllabic word to have two successive accents.

Phyrric--a foot of two unaccented syllables. Some say since there is no accent, it cannot correctly be a foot "On the / bald street / breaks the / blank day"

Rhyme Patterns

Rhyme

Rhyme: likely owes its existence to oral literatures, made it easier to remember lines/stories/myths/folklore/tales. classified according to position of rhymed syllables in the line and the number of syllables involved.

True--can, ran; boat, tote--based on sounds of vowels and succeeding consonants of accented syllables.

Sight--slant, near, off, imperfect--moved, loved

End--at the end of the line

Front--occurs at first syllable or syllables of the line (alliteration): Peter Piper Picked a Peck of Pickled Peppers.

Internal--occurs somewhere between the first and last syllable of the line

masculine--restricted to final accented syllable as in "can" and "ran."

feminine--rhyming stressed syllables followed by rhyming unstressed syllable: "fountain" and "mountain"

Reading a Sonnet

At first glance, or read, sonnets can be intimidating because of their rigid form, but here are some guidelines to reading them that should help you make sense of them at least on the surface level. After gaining that understanding, at least as much as is possible, can we then dig a little deeper.

Rhetorical Form

• The first four lines, or quatrain, introduce the subjct matter of the poem. This is somewhat like the situation in reading a piece of fiction.
• The second four lines, or quatrain, introduce some complication to the situation. As with fiction, this can be pretty much equated to the complication of a story's plot.
• The third set of four lines, or the third quatrain, take the complication further, intensifying the situation.
• Between lines 12 and 13, there is what is called a "turn." This might be equated to the climax, with the denouement rolled in, in a piece of fiction because the resolution is about to come right away.
• The concluding couplet provides some sort of resolution to the situation and complication. With shakespearean couplets, they are often rather witty or pithy, making the point quite clearly, maybe with a touch of humor, irony or something along those lines.

Rhyme Scheme

The typical rhyme scheme for the above describe rhetorical pattern for the Shakespearean or English Sonnet, is this: ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. One variation on this is the Spenserian Sonnet, named after Edmund Spenser, one of Shakespeare's contemporaries. It goes like this: ABAB BCBC CDCD EE. Another variation is the Italian or Petrachan Sonnet, named after the Italian poet Petrach who is credited with the creation of the form. This form is as follows: ABBA ABBA CDECDE or CDCDCD or CDEDCE. With the Italian Sonnet, the turn comes between the second and third stanza and more space is devoted to the resolution of the situation and complication.

Meter

This should give you some information to make sense of the sonnets you read.

Renaissance Timeline and Background

Elizabethan & Restoration Timeline and Characteristics

• 1500 Beginning of the Renaissance period of Literature in England
• 1533 Separation of English Church from Rome: This is where Henry VIII decided to drop the Catholic Church because the Pope wouldn't grant him a divorce so he could marry again.
• 1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada: Much of the fleet was sunk and scattered in a storm but the English saw this as a sign that God was on their side and that Elizabeth was in good standing with the Divine.
• 1558--1603 Death of Elizabeth, Ascension of James I
• 1580-1620 considered the Elizabethan period in English Lit. (Includes what is also called the Jacobean era)
• 1605 Gunpowder Plot: Some Catholics, led by Guy Fawkes, attempt to blow up Parliament. Some killed resisting arrest remainder jailed and many executed for treason. Nov. 5 is Guy Fawkes Day in England. Fawkes is burned in effigy.
• 1607 Settlement at James Town, Virginia: First real settlement of North America. Nealry 90 percent of the settlers are dead within the year.
• 1609 First Scot and English protestant settled in Ulster: England sought to conquer Ireland by settling English Protestants. This is where the Irish "Troubles" began and are still going on today.
• 1611 King James translation of the Bible: Primary translation used by Protestants still today.
• 1616 Shakespeare dies
• 1618 Harvey discovers circulation of the blood (published 1628): Prior to this it was thought that the blood ebbed and flowed like the tide.
• 1625-49 Reign of Charles I
• 1639 First printing press in America: In order to control the distribution of printed materials, it was illegal to have a printing press in the colonies. The suppresion of the means to distribute materials has been key to controlling many a society. Soviet Russia banned access to xerox machines in the 1960's and 70's and many repressive govenrments today ban access to the Internet to limit access to information.
• 1642 English Civil War: Theaters closed because most drama mocks rulers; "New Model Army" is the first professional army. Earlier armies were raised from those working a particular noble's lands. The New Model Army recruited and paid soliders to fight for Parliament against the Monarchist forces.
• 1649 Execution of Charles I: Many trace England's decline to this act. Since the Monarch was seen as God's chosen ruler on earth, to kill the king was to act directly against the will of God.
• 1649-60 Interregnum-Rule of Cromwell & Son: Cromwell was an astute ruler but he made the mistake of passing rule to his incompetent son, rather an odd choice for someone who led the battle against the hereditary succession of power inherent in the throne.
• 1660 Restoration of Throne to Charles II: After Cromwell's son botched things up, the people of England were eager to restore the Monarchy.

Some Elizabethan Characteristics

Nationalist fervor of country, bolstered by defeat of Spanish Armada (much of which was sunk in a storm), beginnings of world colonization and trade--both of which were reflected in literature.

Renaissance learning and interest began to be more generally felt. English language enriched by borrowings from Latin, Greek, Italian, and French. Humanist ideals (exalt the human over the divine). Verse forms such as sonnet and blank verse became more familiar.

Religious controversy: struggles between Catholics and Church of England, and also among those of the High Church (similar in many ways to the Catholic Church) and the Low Church (Puritans).

Rhetoric is stylish and self conscious, showing relish for ornate and cleverly arranged words. Depended more on rhyme schemes than tropes (metaphorical figures of speech)

Reliance on amplification, exaggerated emphasis in interest of persuasive effect

Pathetic fallacies--attribution of living qualities to inanimate objects, primarily with animalistic hostility in inanimate objects.

Some Restoration Characteristics

Fashionable/popular literature of the era is a reaction against Puritanism. (Puritans wished to purify church of England by eliminating anything remotely smacking of the Catholic Church and its pomp--doing away with superstitious rites of church (such as transubstantiation where the wafer and wine are believed to actually become the real body and blood of Jesus Christ), taking communion sitting rather than kneeling, serious observance of the Sabbath, discarding apocryphal (spurious, doubtful, divinely uninspired) books of Bible.)

Although a time of anxiety and tension, recrimination and score settling, literature marked by love of gaiety, wit, and immortality, revival of interest in science.

Guiding Principles

Nature's law: orders natural elements/physics

Celestial/heavenly law: that which the angels follow

Law of Reason: binds reasoning creatures to law which they know they are bound

Divine Law: binds men, known only because of revelation by God

Human Law: Laws that men make out by following reason or divine law

The Chain of Being: describes God's plentitude, unfaltering order, and ultimate unity. Every speck in creation has a place in the chain.

Earthly (bottom)

inamimate class: elements: earth, water, air, fire.

vegetative class: trees, bushes, weeds, etc.

sensitive class--existance, life, and feeling that has three levels

• Bottom--creatures with touch but not movment, hearing or memory. Includes shellfish (oysters generally considered the lowest), parasites.
• middle is animals having touch, memory and movement, but not hearing. Ants are an example.
• Top are higher animals, having all four characteristics (touch, memory, movement, and hearing): horses, dogs, cats, etc.
• Man belongs to the existance, life, feeling, and understanding class.

Divine

Man's soul--bridge between earthly and divine

Angels (Angles bridge the gap between god and man)

Angels: triple divisions echo the Trinity

(contemplative) Seraphs, cherubs, thrones,

(Active in thought, not deed) Dominations, Virtues, Powers

(Active) Principalities, Archangels, Angels

God

Ether: each ruled in order by the angels above

primum mobile ,(outermost of 10 coencentric circles making up the universe--that which is the cause of all movement but does not move itself.) the fixed stars, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon.

Among groups, there is one member who has Primacy:

• God is prime among the angels
• The sun is prime among the planets (earth wrongly seen as being at the center of the universe was considered the bottom)
• The eagle is prime among the birds
• The lion is prime among the beasts
• The king is prime among men
• Man's head is prime among his body
• Justice is prime among the virtues
• The rose is prime among flowers
• The dolphin is prime among the fish